Stochastic process-based modelling for hydrological systems

Abstract

This thesis falls into the scientific areas of stochastic hydrology, hydrological modelling and hydroinformatics. It contributes with new practical solutions, new methodologies and large-scale results to predictive modelling of hydrological processes, specifically to solving two interrelated technical problems with emphasis on the latter. These problems are: (A) hydrological time series forecasting by exclusively using endogenous predictor variables (hereafter, referred to simply as “hydrological time series forecasting”); and (B) stochastic process-based modelling of hydrological systems via probabilistic post-processing (hereafter, referred to simply as “probabilistic hydrological post-processing”). For the investigation of these technical problems, the thesis forms and exploits a novel predictive modelling and benchmarking toolbox. This toolbox is consisted of: (i) approximately 6 000 hydrological time series (sourced from larger freely available datasets), (ii) over 45 ready-made automatic models and algorithms mostly originating from the four major families of stochastic, (machine learning) regression, (machine learning) quantile regression, and conceptual process-based models, (iii) seven flexible methodologies (which together with the ready-made automatic models and algorithms consist the basis of our modelling solutions), and (iv) approximately 30 predictive performance evaluation metrics. Novel model combinations coupled with different algorithmic argument choices result in numerous model variants, many of which could be perceived as new methods. All the utilized models (i.e., the ones already available in open software, as well as those automated and proposed in the context of the thesis) are flexible, computationally convenient and fast; thus, they are appropriate for large-sample (even global-scale) hydrological investigations. Such investigations are implied by the (mainly) algorithmic nature of the methodologies of the thesis. In spite of this nature, the thesis also provides innovative theoretical supplements to its practical and methodological contribution. Technical problem (A) is examined in four stages. During the first stage, a detailed framework for assessing forecasting techniques in hydrology is introduced. Complying with the principles of forecasting and contrary to the existing hydrological (and, more generally, geophysical) time series forecasting literature (in which forecasting performance is usually assessed within case studies), the introduced framework incorporates large-scale benchmarking. The latter relies on big hydrological datasets, large-scale time series simulation by using classical stationary stochastic models, many automatic forecasting models and algorithms (including benchmarks), and many forecast quality metrics. The new framework is exploited (by utilizing part of the predictive modelling and benchmarking toolbox of the thesis) to provide large-scale results and useful insights on the comparison of stochastic and machine learning forecasting methods for the case of hydrological time series forecasting at large temporal scales (e.g., the annual and monthly ones), with emphasis on annual river discharge processes. The related investigations focus on multi-step ahead forecasting. During the second stage of the investigation of technical problem (A), the work conducted during the previous stage is expanded by exploring the one-step ahead forecasting properties of its methods, when the latter are applied to non-seasonal geophysical time series. Emphasis is put on the examination of two real-world datasets, an annual temperature dataset and an annual precipitation dataset. These datasets are examined in both their original and standardized forms to reveal the most and least accurate methods for long-run one-step ahead forecasting applications, and to provide rough benchmarks for the one-year ahead predictability of temperature and precipitation. The third stage of the investigation of technical problem (A) includes both the examination-quantification of predictability of monthly temperature and monthly precipitation at global scale, and the comparison of a large number of (mostly stochastic) automatic time series forecasting methods for monthly geophysical time series. The related investigations focus on multi-step ahead forecasting by using the largest real-world data sample ever used so far in hydrology for assessing the performance of time series forecasting methods. With the fourth (and last) stage of the investigation of technical problem (A), the multiple-case study research strategy is introduced −in its large-scale version− as an innovative alternative to conducting single- or few-case studies in the field of geophysical time series forecasting. To explore three sub-problems associated with hydrological time series forecasting using machine learning algorithms, an extensive multiple-case study is conducted. This multiple-case study is composed by a sufficient number of single-case studies, which exploit monthly temperature and monthly precipitation time series observed in Greece. The explored sub-problems are lagged variable selection, hyperparameter handling, and comparison of machine learning and stochastic algorithms. Technical problem (B) is examined in three stages. During the first stage, a novel two-stage probabilistic hydrological post-processing methodology is developed by using a theoretically consistent probabilistic hydrological modelling blueprint as a starting point. The usefulness of this methodology is demonstrated by conducting toy model investigations. The same investigations also demonstrate how our understanding of the system to be modelled can guide us to achieve better predictive modelling when using the proposed methodology. During the second stage of the investigation of technical problem (B), the probabilistic hydrological modelling methodology proposed during the previous stage is validated. The validation is made by conducting a large-scale real-world experiment at monthly timescale. In this experiment, the increased robustness of the investigated methodology with respect to the combined (by this methodology) individual predictors and, by extension, to basic two-stage post-processing methodologies is demonstrated. The ability to “harness the wisdom of the crowd” is also empirically proven. Finally, during the third stage of the investigation of technical problem (B), the thesis introduces the largest range of probabilistic hydrological post-processing methods ever introduced in a single work, and additionally conducts at daily timescale the largest benchmark experiment ever conducted in the field. Additionally, it assesses several theoretical and qualitative aspects of the examined problem and the application of the proposed algorithms to answer the following research question: Why and how to combine process-based models and machine learning quantile regression algorithms for probabilistic hydrological modelling?